Beef cattle primarily rely on straw as their main feed, with wheat straw, corn stalks, and rice straw making up the largest portion. These types of roughage have low nutritional value, limited crude protein, and low digestible energy. The crude fiber content can range from 30% to 40%, while lignin levels vary between 6.5% and 12%. Once consumed, these materials remain in the digestive tract for a long time, leading to slow emptying, reduced intake, and impaired rumination and digestion. To improve this, proper processing and treatment are essential. There are various methods for processing and fermenting straw. One common approach is to cut the straw into pieces of 1.5 to 3 centimeters or grind it into smaller particles. This increases the surface area available for microbial action in the rumen, reduces bulk, and improves feed passage through the digestive system. Straw crushing technology has shown promising results by turning the straw into fine filaments. This method is widely promoted and proves effective in enhancing straw utilization. Combining physical treatments like chopping or grinding with chemical methods such as ammoniation, silage, alkalization, or microbial fermentation can significantly improve feed intake and organic matter digestibility by 10% to 25%. The nutritional value of roughage alone is insufficient to meet the dietary needs of beef cattle at different growth stages. Therefore, it's necessary to supplement with concentrates—energy and protein sources. Typically, concentrates make up less than 50% of the diet. However, due to their dense, small size, and heavy weight, they are difficult to mix evenly with coarse feed. To ensure proper feeding, several strategies can be used: 1. Mix the concentrate with wet roughage and feed it freely. 2. Feed roughage first, then sprinkle the concentrate over it to encourage even consumption. 3. Feed the concentrate first, then add the roughage after the cow finishes eating. This works best when the concentrate makes up more than 30% of the diet. Grain-based feeds, such as barley, rice, and oats, often have hard outer layers that need to be processed for better digestion. Common methods include: - **Crushing**: The most common technique. Grind grains to about 2 mm in size. Too fine may cause dry feed to clump, forming a viscous mass in the gut, which hinders digestion. - **Flattening**: After cooking or steaming, flattening increases weight gain by 5% to 10%. - **Soaking**: Soak 100 kg of grain in 150 kg of water to soften it and improve digestibility. - **Roasting**: Cooking at around 150°C converts starch into a paste, improving flavor and palatability. It also helps remove harmful substances and boost nutrient absorption. Crush after roasting for best results. - **Germination**: Sprouting increases vitamin content, ideal for adult bulls. - **Saccharification**: Soak ground seeds in hot water (55–60°C) for 4 hours to increase sugar content to 8%–12%, suitable for fattening cows. - **Pelleting**: Combine fine and coarse feeds according to nutritional needs, then process them into pellets, cakes, or blocks using specialized machines. This is ideal for yaks and finishing cattle.

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